CALCIUM STONE: WHAT ARE THE CAUSES?

Most calcium stones are composed of calcium oxalate (a lesser number are of calcium phosphate) and 80 to 90% are idiopathic (no discoverable cause). Some are associated with increased oxalate secretion and 10 to 15% are associated with hypercalciuria. Hypercalciuria may be associated with hyper- calcaemia particularly those associated with primary hyperparathyroidism, or normocalcaemia (normocalcaemic hypercalciuria) -- idiopathic or associated with: renal tubular acidosis, carbonic anhydrase inhibitors, immobilisation, hyper- thyroidism, Paget's disease, medullary sponge kidney.
Depending on the cause hypercalciuria may be: absorptive due to increased intestinal calcium absorption,
renal due to decreased tubular calcium reabsorption,
with secondary enhanced intestinal absorption of calcium resorptive, due to increased mobilization of skeletal (bone) calcium Triple phosphate stones.

posted from Bloggeroid

ABSORPTION OF IRON IN THE BODY

Iron, ingested in the ferric (3 +) state, must be converted to the ferrous (2+ ) state
to be absorbed. This conversion takes place in the stomach, where the gastric HCL
provides the acidity to reduce the iron. This absorption mechanism is the body’s
method of regulating the amount of iron in the body. Iron that is not absorbed is
excreted through the feces.

BIG NEWS FROM SCIENCE

Surgeons have successfully replaced a patient’s skull with a 3D-printed version. Three months after the operation the patient, a 22-year-old woman with a rare disorder that thickened her skull and gave her poor eyesight as well as headaches, has recovered her eyesight and has gone back to work.

Read more: http://ind.pn/1pecfoe via The Independent

posted from Bloggeroid

OVERVIEW OF THE IMMUNE SYSTEM

The immune system is a complex system that is responsible for protecting us against infections and foreign substances. There are three lines of defense: the first is to keep invaders out (through skin, mucus membranes, etc), the second line of defense consists of non-specific ways to defend against pathogens that have broken through the first line of defense (such as with inflammatory response and fever). The third line of defense is mounted against specific pathogens that are causing disease (B cells produce antibodies against bacteria or viruses in the extracellular fluid, while T cells kill cells that have become infected). The immune system is closely tied to the lymphatic system, with B and T lymphocytes being found primarily within lymph nodes. Tonsils and the thymus gland are also considered lymph organs and are involved in immunity. We often don't realize how effective the immune system is until it fails or malfunctions, such as when the lymphocytes are attacked by HIV in an AIDS patient.